Assignment 2.2: Ratio Analysis

Assignment 2. 2: Ratio Analysis Name| | Part 1: Enter the information based on your computations. | 2011| 2010| Benchmark| Favorable (F), Unfavorable (U), or Approximate (A)? 2011/2010| 1. Current ratio | 3. 52| 2. 59| 2. 00| Favorable| 2. Days cash on hand| 27. 64| 18. 10| 15. 00| Favorable| 3. Days in A/R| 69. 32| 76. 59| 45. 00| Favorable| 4. Operating margin | 2. 18%| 3. 03%| 4%| Unfavorable| 5. Return on total assets | 5. 08%| 7. 13%| 4%| Unfavorable| 6. Return on net assets | 14. 54%| 17. 76%| 10%| Unfavorable| 7. Debt to capitalization| 61. 21%| 53. 69%| 50%| Unfavorable| 8.Times interest earned | 2. 47| 3. 36| 4. 00| Unfavorable| 9. Debt service coverage | 1. 28| 1. 30| 2. 00| Approximate| 10. Fixed asset turnover | 3. 28| 2. 88| 3. 00| Favorable| 11. Salary and benefit/NPSR| 84. 08%| 82. 82%| 55%| Unfavorable| 1. Current ratio = Total Current Assets in Balance Sheet / Total Current Liabilities in Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| $54,306/$15,425| $39,715/$15,315| 3. 52| 2. 59 | 2. D ays Cash on Hand = Cash and Cash Equivalents from Balance Sheet / [(Total Expenses – Depreciation – Provision for Bad Debts in Statement of Operations) / 365] 011| 2010| $12,102/[($168,232 – $6,405 – $2,000)/365]| $6,486/[($138,394 – $5,798 – $1,800)/365]| $12,102/[$159,827/365]| $6,486/[$130. 796/365]| $12,102/437. 88| $6,486/358. 34| 27. 64| 18. 10| 3. Days in A/R = Net Patient Accounts Receivable in Balance Sheet / (Net Patient Service Revenue in Statement of Operations / 365) 2011| 2010| $28,509/($150,118/365)| $25,927/$123,565/365)| $28,509/411. 28| $25,927/338. 53| 69. 32| 76. 59| 4. Operating margin = Operating Income from Statement of Operations / Total Revenues in Statement of Operations 2011| 2010| 3,747/$171,979| $4,330/$142,724| .0218 x 100| . 0303 X 100| 2. 18%| 3. 03%| 5. Return on total assets = Net Income in Statement of Operations / Total Assets in Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| $7,860/$154,815| $8,206/$115,101| .0508 x 100| . 07 13 x 100| 5. 08%| 7. 13%| 6. Return on net assets = Net Income in Statement of Operations / Net Assets in the Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| $7,860/$54,068| $8,206/$46,208| .1454 x 100| . 1776 x 100| 14. 54%| 17. 76%| 7. Debt to capitalization = Long-term Debt in Balance Sheet / Long term debt + Net Assets in Balance Sheet 2011| 2010| 85,322/($85,322 + $54,068)| $53,578/($53,578 + $46,208)| $85,322/$139,390| $53,578/$99,786| .6121 x 100| . 5369 x 100| 61. 21%| 53. 69%| 8. Times interest earned = (Net Income + Interest) in Statement of Operations / Interest in Statement of Operations 2011| 2010| ($7,860 + $5,329)/$5,329| ($8,206 + $3,476)/$3,476| $13,189/$5,329| $11,682/$3,476| 2. 47| 3. 36| 9. Debt service coverage = (Net Income + Interest + Depreciation) in Statement of Operations/ Interest + Principal Payments ($10 million assumed for this assignment) 2011| 2010| ($7,860 + $5,329 + $6. 05)/$15,329| ($8,206 + $3,476 + $5,795)/$13,476| $19,594/$15,329| $17,477/$13,476| 1. 28| 1. 30| 10. Fixed asset turnover = Total Revenues in Statement of Operations / Net Property and Equipment 2011| 2010| $171,979/$52,450| $142,724/$49,549| 3. 28| 2. 88| 11. Salary and benefits as a % of net patient revenue = Salaries and Benefits in Statement of Operations / Net Patient Service Revenue in Statement of Operations 2011| 2010| $126,223/$150,118| $102,334/$123,565| .8408 X 100| . 8282 x 100| 84. 08%| 82. 82%| Part 2: Type your memo to senior management below

Critical Lens of to Kill a Mocking Bird, and a Raisin in the Sun

It was Robert G. Ingersoll who once said; â€Å"The greatest test of courage on earth is to bear defeat without losing heart. † In other words, he is trying to convey to us that in life, it is how we deal with our failures, and not the actions we take during our high points that matter most. This is because who we are and how we act during our lows are what define us as people. In accordance with this quote, two examples in which this idea occurs constantly are Lorraine Hansberry’s controversial play, A Raisin in the Sun, and Harper Lee’s renowned novel, To Kill a Mockingbird.Let’s delve into these pieces of literature to thrust Ingersoll’s philosophy into light. A Raisin in the Sun portrays a few weeks in the life of the Youngers, an African-American family living on the South Side of Chicago in the1950s. The Youngers live in a world where prejudice and racial ignorance have a grip on the masses, making their life very difficult. After the death of Mrs. Younger’s (or Mama) beloved husband, an insurance check finally comes to them for about 10,000 dollars.Confident that his plan of opening a liquor store will solve the Younger’s financial issues thus far, Walter Younger took it upon himself to invest most of his money into opening his store with two of his colleagues. In a terrible turn of events, one of his partners took off with all of the money Walter invested, leaving him with nothing. After this catastrophic mistake, Walter feels at an all time low. With temptation coming from Mr. Linder to give up their dream of moving into a permanent house for a bribe, Walter almost budges and submits, but at the last minute, he has an epiphany.He realizes that his family’s pride and honor cannot be bought, and he rejected Mr. Linder’s bribe, and the Youngers made the bold move into Clybourne Park, an all-white neighborhood, with their heads held high, and looking positively into the future. Walter’s wife, Ruth gets a massive blow when she is stunned by an unexpected pregnancy. In the Younger’s current situation, Ruth having a baby would be completely detrimental to their already crumbling financial situation.Her resolve was tested by the easy way out when she was tempted to go to an abortion clinic. As this possibility and all of the stress from the pregnancy was building up on Ruth’s already troubled mind, she felt very lost. After Walter found out about the pregnancy (And Ruth’s planning of an abortion), he became very upset with his wife, saying that an abortion was not the answer, and he believed that even if brining a new life into a troubled situation would be difficult, he said that it was a challenge worth taking on.Walter’s bravery when facing Mr. Linder inspired Ruth to take her hardship head on and do the right thing instead of taking a defeat with a defeated honor. To Kill a Mockingbird revolves around Scout Finch, who lives  with her b rother, Jem, and their widowed father, Atticus, in the sleepy Alabama town of Maycomb. Near the beginning of the story, Atticus is assigned a virtually impossible case, in the defense of a black man (Tom Robinson) accused of raping and battering a white woman (Mayella Ewell).Unlike most everybody else in town, Atticus can look beyond the color of Tom’s skin and truly see Tom’s innocence and decency. Taking a bold stance in the case, he fights with every iota of his being to bring into light Tom’s innocence and the flaws of the prosecution, who’s entire argument was based on circumstantial evidence and racial advantages (white vs. black in a racially prejudiced milieu). Although Atticus made an excellent defense, the jury still found Tom guilty.Atticus was completely crushed, but he nonetheless held his head high and showed optimism when he told Tom they still had another chance. To show appreciation for all of Atticus’ effort and dignity in the cas e, the African American balcony had a standing ovation for Atticus to honor his job well done, and this shows a perfect example of a defeat showing a test of courage. On the other end of this spectrum, we have Tom Robinson, who was actually the focus of this court case.Just trying to offer friendly assistance to a woman in need, tom frequently offered a helping to Mayella Ewell, who comes from a very unfortunate family situation, financially and abuse wise. Eventually, Mayella fell in love with Tom, and then pursued him, but Tom being a decent married man rejected. In a sudden twist, this scenario turned into Tom raping Mayella and the entire community turning on him. After a rigorous trial, the jury, as we know, found Tom guilty. In this defeat, Tom attempted to escape the officers and make a run for it.His resolve was shattered by his defeat, and he ended up paying his life for it. Perhaps if he had waited for the second trial, he may have been found innocent. As proven again and again in these two works and many others, â€Å"The greatest test of courage on earth is to bear defeat without losing heart. † All thorough history this statement has been proven to be true. We must always remember that it is how we present ourselves during our worst times, and this is what defines us.

FMLA this is a Human Resoures class Research Paper

FMLA this is a Human Resoures class - Research Paper Example However, if a company is a public agency, including all private and public schools, it must provide FMLA regardless of the number of employees. The FMLA allows eligible employees to take off up to 12 work weeks in any 12 month period to take care of a new child in the family whether by birth, adoption or by placement in foster care; to care for an immediate family member (spouse, child, or parent) with a serious health condition; or if the employee himself is unable to work because of a serious health condition (USDOL,n.d.). An employee can be eligible to FMLA if he is unable to perform his essential job function. The FMLA regulations guarantees time-off but it is up to the employer if he will pay the employee and provide benefits while he takes a leave. The continuous, intermittent and reduced schedules are the three different kinds of FMLA leave. The continuous leave is when an employee is absent for more than three consecutive business days and has been treated by a doctor. The in termittent leave is when an employee takes time off in separate blocks. It can either be in hourly, daily, or weekly increments. This type of leave is usually taken by an employee who undergoes ongoing treatment.

Contract Law Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Contract Law - Article Example However, in February 2001 Junior Aids forget to send a representative to one of the major retailers during one 2 week period and miss a small order from that company. Infasuck, who have been looking for an opportunity to replace Junior Aids, immediately repudiate the agreement and claim damages: In order to be able to assess Junior Aids Legal Position it is necessary to examine the ways in which a contract can be repudiated. The starting point in this type of situation is to examine the terms of the contract to determine whether there has been a breach. This will enable a conclusion to be drawn as to the rights of the parties in terms of repudiation of the contract. In law either party might be entitled to repudiate the contract. In this particular situation Infasuck Ltd might be entitled to repudiate the contract because the other party has not adhered to a clause in the contract. In order to decide whether repudiation is likely to be authorised by the court it is necessary to examine the content of the contract to determine whether the clause amounts to a condition. In this particular situation it is obvious that Clause 6 amounts to a condition as the agreement is that Junior Aids will visit the groups at least once a week. ... As a result of this lateness the plaintiff failed to attend rehearsals which were viewed as a lesser part of the contract. The court held that there had been a breach of the warranty to attend the rehearsals but that the defendant was only entitled to compensation for this loss and was not entitled to repudiate the contract. In some cases the court will not allow the parties to repudiate if a substantial part of the contract has been performed before the breach occurred. This was the case in Hong Kong Fir Shipping2 where the court found that as a substantial part of the contract had been completed the plaintiff was only entitled to claim compensation for loss of profit and earnings whilst the vessel could not be used. In these cases the court held that there had been a breach of warranty but not a breach of a condition in the contract. By contrast in the case of Poussard v Spiers3 the court reached the conclusion that there had been a breach of a condition inserted within the contract. The court stated in this case that the plaintiff was entitled to repudiate the contract on the grounds of the breach as the breach rendered the contract void. In general terms the person seeking to repudiate a contract must do so as soon as the breach becomes apparent. In the situation above Infasuck Ltd knew of the breach some time before hand, but had allowed the contract to continue and had amended the terms of the contract. The court might hold in such a case that by doing so Infasuck Ltd had affirmed the contract, in which case the court may decide that they are not entitled to repudiate the contract. In Hayes (t/a Orchard Construction) v Gallant[2008]4 the court had to determine whether there had been an

Russian Literature Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Russian Literature - Assignment Example This search symbolizes the dissatisfaction in his life and the craving for someone to complete this search. Furthermore, the fragrance and moisture of flowers signify the freshness of true love. The novelty of these feelings arouses Gurov to new heights of emotions and experiences. Finally, Chekhov further uses situational irony to show how Gurov changes. Gurov falls in love with who he calls an inferior race, which actually made him part of the better race, because love changed him to become a better person. Gurov sees women as an â€Å"inferior race† (362) and his first impression of Anna is that she is pathetic. By being in love with an inferior race, the situational irony is that Gurov has transformed into a â€Å"better race,† where he sheds the monotony of his life behind and experiences something so passionate and liberating. However, it remains ironic that Gurov keeps this life a secret, when it is only the life he ever wanted to live.

Uncertainty and Risks in Entrepreneurship Essay

Uncertainty and Risks in Entrepreneurship - Essay Example When operating a small business enterprise it is imperative to reflect on the factors that influence both the internal and external environments of the business. The failure to observe the internal and external environments will render the functioning of a business system useless. This is because the small business enterprise will occasionally face obstacles in the daily operations and management. This paper discusses how the ability to cope with uncertainty and to take risks affects the operating environment of a small business enterprise. Small business enterprises nowadays are on the rise. Individuals have developed the urge of operating businesses that will bring them extra cash to cater for their ever-increasing needs. However, operation and management of any small business enterprise is not an easy task, as it requires an individual with skills, attributes, determination and disciple. It is imperative for an individual operating a business enterprise, to have the above elements since they will help when the time of facing the internal and external environment comes. In essence, taking risks and coping with uncertainty are matters that are associated with the internal and external environment of a small business enterprise. ... Managers cope with uncertainty in a reactive manner by developing adaptive strategies to counter the effect. This is so since they are beyond the immediate control of the business enterprise. As much as uncertainty is beyond the control of an individual, business enterprise, it still influences the daily operations and management of a business enterprise. Examples of uncertainties are external factors such as the economy, government policies and demographics. In most occasions, uncertainty affects a business enterprise negatively. Individuals who have taken the management role in any small business enterprise should apply a positive management attitude when coping with uncertainties. Uncertainty is unpredictable and unexpected, and that is why only the individuals with management skills and positive attitudes can have the ability to cope with uncertainty. A manager may think that he, or she has everything pertaining to a business enterprise in control, but uncertainties in the form o f government policies, competition, economical shifts and demographical changes can prove wrong a manager’s initial judgment (Gigerenzer 2008: 34). The first factor that can be a great uncertainty is government policy. It is likely that at times, the government can come up with an unexpected policy that will ultimately affect the operations of a business enterprise. A skillful manager is expected to develop coping strategies that will end up minimizing the disadvantages while maximizing the advantages, which are part the uncertainty that has been brought by the government policy. For example, government policy can entail increasing or decreasing taxes on a commodity that the business enterprise in question is selling.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 206

Assignment Example It can also track the non-performing segments and provide a platform from which the group can decide whether or not to clear with some departments. Using Stern Stewart’s lists of effective management with regards to maximizing on the components of EVA, it is possible to see just how appropriate capital employed serves the business. The Capital Light strategy seeks to make available larger sums of capital all in the name of taking advantage of the way in which potential investors will hold the fort in case of an expected payday. EVA can be put to task with regards to its effectiveness in picking out the non-performing segments or investments. As the instigator of EVA, Stern Stewart and Co., enjoy a significant share in the market and a healthy result for their years of service. The current levels of compensation seem excessive especially when put into perspective regarding profit and loss. The example of Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae shows just how far the rot has spread with the company now operating at a loss in the name of maintaining staff with major skills. It becomes a major burden ensuring that the objectives of the shareholders are satisfied. The compensation levels however, should come into play even before a CEO’s term ends. The payment will make a significant impact on whether or not the company continues in the set pathway. The way in which a CEO drives forward his/her agenda is mainly dependent on the manner of their economic contribution (Fortune, n.d). An imbalanced and overpaid leader will impact negatively on morale and lead to loss of profit levels. It is especially true in the event of an economic downturn. The question of giving raises and bonuses to the employees of the federal and state governments during poor economic performances desires an answer. These governments have the power within them to improve living standards for

Describe and analyze the Reconstruction of the American South between Essay

Describe and analyze the Reconstruction of the American South between 1863 abd 1877. What was its impact on the future of American society - Essay Example r original practical relations; and let all these questions then be discussed in common council†¦ that it would have been better as soon as the lamentable conflict was over, when the people of the south abandoned their cause and agreed to accept the issue, desiring as they do to resume their places for the future in the Union, and to look to the arena of reason and justice for the protection of their rights in the Union†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Plans for Reconstruction were already on the way even before the war ended. These plans and eventual legislations and proposals were mostly influenced by the powerful Republicans, which demand harsh policies for the Southern states. However, the moderates, such as then incumbent President Abraham Lincoln prevailed on restoring the Southerners back as fast as possible with as much leniency.1 However, admission to the union meant the Confederate states were to adhere to several terms and conditions without compromise otherwise they risk representation in the United States Congress. Although subjected to several historical debates in the past, the Reconstruction period is undeniably one of the most significant periods in the United States history. It would impress a lasting impact on two major aspects in the identity of American society. They are racial equality and economic activity. â€Å"The disintegration of slavery was one among several considerations that propelled the Lincoln administration down the road to emancipation†¦ Lack of military success, coupled with the anti-slavery agitation of abolitionists and Radical Republicans, convinced a significant part of the Northern public that the war could not be won without attacking slavery.† (Foner, Mahoney, p. 16) Thus, after their defeat, the Confederate states were forced to swear on abolishing slavery and eventually free their black slaves. The moderates and radicals among the Republicans agreed that it was essential in guaranteeing the perpetual union among the states. The

PROSTITUTION -this is for health ethics and law in Canada class Essay

PROSTITUTION -this is for health ethics and law in Canada class - Essay Example This theory fits very well with the argument supporting it, as it teaches that individuals have a duty and a responsibility of acting accordingly regardless of the consequences that will precede their actions (Longworth, 2010). The utilitarian ethical theory states that the choice that yields the greatest benefit to a majority of persons is the choice that is ethically correct. It places the locus of what is wrong and right solely on the outcome of choosing ones interest actions taking into account other peoples interest. The theory is against prostitution law in an effort of reducing suffering or negatives outcomes to the society. The principle based theory focuses on main principles of ethics such as respecting the person’s autonomy, justice, beneficence, and non-maleficence practice. Thus, it calls for unethical stoppage of prostitution to protect human dignity (Irvine, Osborne, Shariff & Sneiderman, 2013). The ethics of care theory, on the contrary, is in support of prostitution. From the theory, it is important to understand the various degrees of dependence of each individual, as it is essential to consider different situations in an effort to safeguarding and promoting the specific interest of the victims involved. Many individuals see sex work as unethical yet for them; it is a source of live food, and they cannot survive without. This has been supported by moral relativism source of morality that is concerned with the moral judgment’s differences across different cultures. It acknowledges that individuals in one way will disagree about what is ethically moral, but nobody emerges objectively wrong or right (Fisher, 2013). According to subjectivism source of morality, subjectivism is according to the truth condition of utterance that â€Å"prostitution is wrong† from the moral human standard. Thus, it disapproves of the act subjecting it to be morally unethical practicing it. From objectivism based on authority source of

First World War Essay Example for Free

First World War Essay I have focussed my monologue on the character of Sheila Birling. Her role in the play was significant as it is coming from the point of view of a young, upper class woman. Her naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve views represent her role as an authoritative figure in society who has the ability to help Eva Smith, but her selfishness and her egotistic manner contradicts the main theme running through out the play of An Inspector Calls that one persons actions impact anothers and we all have a duty in helping people lower in the system. JB Priestley wrote the play in 1942 about a retrospective time just before the First World War. Sheilas main role in the play was that she was able and had the power to get Eva sacked because of her position in society, whereas Eva, who was of a lower class than Sheila, was not able to stand up for herself because she did not have enough power. Sheila abuses her superior position in society for petty reasons of that Eva is prettier than her.  I chose to write about her, as she is a very expendable character who has no firm reason or purpose in firing Eva Smith. When the inspector questions Sheila about the photo Sheila says You Knew it was me all the time, didnt you? By saying this Sheila opens herself up (explain) and seems to accept responsibility for her actions and is showing this to the inspector, rather than trying to cover the truth up with lies, or try to pass on the blame to others as some characters in the play do. Her character I think is important in the play, as I believe that Priestly was trying to demonstrate later on in the play that the youth could change. The setting of my monologue of Sheila alone and isolated symbolises her distance from what she was once in the play. The year now being 1916, four years down the line, she has turned her back on the aristocratic life and is trying to dissolve into an unprivileged life.  Her clothes are the colour of green and brown that shake off her previous character of wealth and affluence as to her new attempted classless status. Sheila has disconnected herself from the Birlings and perhaps is trying to punish herself by living the life that the Eva Smith once led. Sheilas job now includes working at homeless shelters and working for charities. Her language has become less energetic and fluent than it once was. I have however tried to include some of the phrases from the play it was a mean thing to do I tried to make use of punctuation and grammar to create her feelings and emotions. In the monologue I have use ellipsis to show pauses, when she might be thinking or reflecting on painful memories. Exclamation marks are used to get her point across that she is getting agitated and snappy To the audience, I was trying to convey the ideas of Sheila being a changed woman. That she has come to realise that status and power isnt everything. She can look past this now and look forward to a happy future with her new baby and Gerald, her husband.  I think the Play writers view on Sheila and all the characters from the play was that the younger generation can learn from their mistakes, and he directs strong criticism towards businessmen who are only interesting in making money and will never lean from their mistakes. Sheilas the second person to be questioned by the Inspector and her response to Evas death is the most caring and heartfelt. She is genuinely upset by the death of Eva. The play is set in 1912. The periods between 1910 and 1945 were a great period of social change. In 1912 was the year that the titanic set sail, the year that the Suffragette movement started campaigning for womens rights in society. The war being a main factor, affecting society greatly and it began the process of merging class boundaries. The upper class young men were sent to the front line as officers and where many of the great landed families of Edwardian Great Britain began to disappear. My overall intention with this monologue was to understand the significant character of the young, impressionable Sheila Birling and how she is central to the key themes in the play and how the Inspector plays the social conscience on all the characters minds.  By the close of the play, Sheila has come to realise that herself and her family have lied to each other, and also to the Inspector. She begins to see her whole life was a lie, the relationship she had with Gerald and lying to herself. She begins to see that she needs to start her life again with truth, starting with correcting her mistakes.

Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan

Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINA AND PAKISTAN AND ITS IMPACT ON INDO PAK RELATIONS If your environment is changing, you must change with it. If you dont, you perish. Curtis E. Sahakian CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. China is a modern developing country with good economic and political condition. It is the biggest ancient society with flair towards modern culture and values. China has very good relations with its neighbours like Pakistan. Pakistan was one of the first countries of the world to recognise China, and since then they have very good relations with each other. 2. Pakistan and China entered into a trade agreement in January 1963 which granted reciprocal Most Favoured Nation status in matters of commerce, trade and shipping. Trade between the border regions of China and Pakistan started in 1969 after the first protocol of trade was signed. This border trade has continued to grow with the patronage of both the countries. Further trade protocols have been signed over the years. The construction of the Karakoram Highway has helped to further trade and communication. Pakistan is an important country for China in trade. A lot of projects of economic development in Pakistan are in process with the co-operation of China which are creating lot ofjobs opportunityfor both Pakistan and China. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4. This dissertation proposes to study and analyse the growing economic relations between Pakistan China, its impact on the security of India and to recommend measures to negate the same by India. HYPOTHESIS 5. Is the growing economic relations between Pakistan China having an adverse impact on the security of India? If yes, what actions should India take to negate them? JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY SCOPE 7. This study concentrates on analysing only the Economic relationship between Pakistan and China and the impact of the same on Indo Pak relations with special emphasis on Indias security. 8. The study is not looking into the military, diplomatic and nuclear relationship between the two countries and the impact these relations are having on Indias security and Indo Pak relations. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION 11. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter II. Strategic Relationship and it scope. (b) Chapter III. Historical Perspective of strategic relations between Pakistan and China. (c) Chapter IV. Chinas â€Å"String of Pearls Policy† Pakistans place in it. (d) Chapter V. Growing economic ties between Pakistan and China. (e) Chapter VI. Security Issues for India. (f) Chapter VII. Recommendations to negate this strategic relationship by India. CHAPTER II STRATEGIC RELATIONSHIP AND ITS SCOPE Interest does not tie nations together; it sometimes separates them. But sympathy and understanding does unite them. -Woodrow T. Wilson No nation is an island. Because domestic policies are constantly affected by developments outside, nations are compelled to enter into dialogue with other nations or initiating entities or form alliance(s) for the purpose of enhancing their status internationally, or increasing their power or prestige and survival in the international system[1]. History The concept of strategic relations is quite old. Humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other for thousands of years. However, it is generally agreed to that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century, when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures. Organisations like the Dutch East India Company were among the first multinational corporations[2], while representatives of various European governments met with foreign governments to establish trade agreements and to discuss issues of mutual concern. The formal history of strategic relations is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, where the modern state system was developed. Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty. Westphalia encouraged the rise of the independent nation-state(s), the institutionalisation of diplomacy and armies[3]. This European system was then exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonisation and the standards of civilisation. The contemporary international system was eventually established through decolonisation after the Cold War. Definition There are many definitions of Strategic Relations written by numerous authors on the web world. Some relevant ones are as given below. Agreement between two or more entities to conduct specified activities or processes, to achieve specified objectives such as product development or distribution[4]. Strategic Relations refers to the collective interactions of the international community, which includes individual nations and states, inter-governmental organisations such as the United Nations, non-governmental organisations, multinational corporations, and so forth. The term is also used to refer to a branch of political science which focuses on the study of these interactions[5]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organisations and certain sub-national entities (e.g., bureaucracies and political parties). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy[6]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations among states and other political and economic units in the international system. Particular areas of study within the field of international relations include diplomacy and diplomatic history, international law, body of rules considered legally binding in the relations between national states, also known as the law of nations[7]. Strategic Relations is the interaction between and among states, and more broadly, the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field, gathering together the international aspects of politics, economics, history, law, and sociology, or as a meta-discipline, focusing on the systemic structures and patterns of interaction of the human species taken as a whole. Barry Buzan Strategic Relations is an area of knowledge based on political science, law, economy, sociology, philosophy, and other social sciences. Traditionally, it not only treats the relations between nation states, but also, International Organisations and non-state actors in the international arena, like non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations[8]. What do Strategic Relations Mean Strategic Relationship represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), international non-governmental organisations (INGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and seeks to analyse as well as formulate the foreign policy of a particular state[9]. Apart from political science, Strategic Relations draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, international law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues including globalisation, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, terrorism, organised crime, human security, foreign interventionism and human rights. There are two main approaches to the field of International Relations. The first is the Realist or Pragmatist approach. This claims that conflict is inevitable and the best way to approach international relations is to be prepared to engage in conflicts and win. The second approach is the Structuralist approach and is symbolised by diplomacy, according to which conflict is not inevitable, focusing on the causes of conflict, stressing on the costs of conflict vis a vis possible gains. This school of thought has been heavily influenced by Galtungs theory of structural violence[10]. Broadly speaking, the two approaches to International Relations can be attributed to either side of the Atlantic: Realism is seen as a primarily American worldview while Structuralism is seen as typically European. Conclusion Considering the vast spectrum of the subject, Strategic Relations can become incredibly complex. The subject is also sometimes known as â€Å"foreign relations†. Specialists in this field staff diplomatic agencies abroad, provide consultation to businesses which are considering to establish branches overseas, and assist charitable non-governmental organisations with their missions. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA The opinions we hold of one another, our relations with friends and kinfolk are in no sense permanent, save in appearance, but are as eternally fluid as the sea itself. Marcel Proust Why Pakistan Chose to Align with China Pakistans attitude towards China is determined by its geography, economic constraints, domestic compulsions and the regional and international situation. The erstwhile fragmented shape of Pakistan, i.e. East and West Pakistan, had greatly contributed to the establishment of Pakistans close relations with China. Geographic constraints on account of Pakistans location, topography and the nature of its frontiers, gave rise to security problems for Pakistan. With the construction of highways connecting China and Pakistan, through Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, China acquired an easy approach to Pakistan. This turned out as a mixed blessing for Pakistan. So long as relations with China are friendly, there is no threat from the North. But in case of strained Sino Pak relations, there would be a grave threat from China[11]. Pakistani policy makers were conscious of this constraint and did express their fears in an unambiguous manner. President Ayub Khan wrote in his political autobiography:- West Pakistan is wedged in between three enormous powers with the Soviet Union at the top, the Peoples Republic of China in the North East, and India in the South and East. I know of no other small country which has the somewhat dubious distinction of having three such mighty neighbours[12]. A number of considerations prompted Pakistan to strengthen its economic and trade ties with China. Firstly, like China, Pakistan was a developing country and the two countries faced common problems in the field of agriculture and industrialisation. China had successfully solved the problem of water logging, salinity and floods, which Pakistan could benefit from. Secondly, the aid offered by China was very attractive as it carried rock-bottom low rate of interest or no interest at all. Thirdly, China showed interest in setting up heavy industries in Pakistan Taxila Industrial Complex, assisted by China is an example. Fourthly, trade with China was beneficial to Pakistan as the balance of the trade generally went in favour of Pakistan and rarely in favour of China[13]. Fifthly, 1962 Sino India war turned Pakistan towards China to counter India. Sixthly, US support to India increased after the Sino India war to counter China, this was resented by Pakistan, which China exploited to w ean the influence of US from Pakistan and get a foothold in the Indian subcontinent. And finally, the Kashmir issue. Pakistan adjudged its relations with other countries in terms of their attitude towards the Kashmir issue. Pakistan regarded China as a friend since its hostility towards India in 1962 and its involvement in the Kashmir issue thereafter[14]. The location of Tibet and Xinjiang on the north of the Indian subcontinent places China in a position to intervene militarily in a confrontation between India and Pakistan. The Karakoram Highway can be used by China for sending arms and ammunition and even the forces. In 1971, Indo Pakistan war, it was used for this purpose[15]. With a view to combating India, Pakistan has been seeking a political counterweight against it. Finding that China was interested in undermining Indias political influence in the Afro Asian world, Pakistani leaders thought that China could serve as a counterweight against India. It was, therefore, a Pakistani objective to seek Chinas political support against India[16]. Karakoram Highway[17] History of Sino Pak Relations After Pakistans creation in 1947, Pakistans relations with China were in a dormant state. In 1950, Pakistan officially recognised the Peoples Republic of China, and broke off ties with Taiwan. Bilateral relations were further strengthened at the Bandung Conference in 1955[18], when talks between the two heads of state played an important role in promoting, understanding and paving way for friendly relations and mutual assistance between the two countries. In 1961, Pakistan furthered its relations with China when it voted in favour of Chinas restoration rights in the UN. Sino-Pak relations got a shot in the arm, with deteriorating Sino-Indian relations which resulted in a war in 1962. China and Pakistan consequently met and agreed on the border between them, in 1963[19], and the Karakoram Highway was consequently built, connecting Chinas Sinkiang (Xinjiang-Uygur) Autonomous Region with the Northern Areas of Pakistan. In 1963 itself, a historic trade agreement between China and Pakistan was signed. Following this, diplomatic meetings were fairly frequent. Their strategic cooperation started out due to a mutual need to counter the Soviet Union and India, but later gave birth to Economic cooperation as well. China supported Pakistan in the two wars against India, in 1965 and 1971, with military as well as economic help. These foundations further led to the creation of a Joint Committee for Economy, Trade and Technology in 1982. By the late 1980s, China started discussing possible sales of military equipment and related technology to Pakistan. In the year 1996, Jiang Zemin, the then Chinese President, made a state visit to Pakistan. During the visit, the decision to establish comprehensive friendship and cooperation between the two nations was taken. Relations, since then have continued to move smoothly along the same path. In 2005, China and Pakistan signed a landmark ‘Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation, whereby they committed that â€Å"Neither party will join any alliance or bloc which infringes upon the sovereignty, security and territorial integrity† of either nation. Also reiterated was the agreement that both parties â€Å"would not conclude treaties of this nature with any third party†[20]. Conclusion Hence, during the post Cold War era, China turned out to be Pakistans most significant strategic guarantor as far as India was concerned. It was also the source of initial design information for Pakistans nuclear arsenal and also assisted with building of the nuclear technology complex[21]. Since the late 1990s, economic concerns have gained prominence alongside the military-strategic aspect of the relationship; specifically, trade and energy have taken precedence. Over the years, frequent exchanges of high-level visits and contacts between the two countries have resulted in a number of bilateral trade agreements and investment commitments. A comprehensive free trade agreement was signed in 2008, giving each country unprecedented market access to the other. Trade between Islamabad and Beijing now hovers around $7 billion a year and both sides are set on raising the to $15 billion by 2010[22]. CHAPTER IV CHINAS â€Å"STRING OF PEARLS STRATEGY† PAKISTANS PLACE IN IT. Apart from their other characteristics, the outstanding thing about Chinas 600 million people is that they are â€Å"poor and blank.† This may seem a bad thing, but in reality it is a good thing. Poverty gives rise to the desire for change, the desire for action and the desire for revolution. On a blank sheet of paper free from any mark, the freshest and most beautiful pictures can be painted. Zedong Mao What is String of Pearls Strategy A string of pearls strategy is a strategic move which involves establishing a series of nodes of military and economic power throughout a region. Each node is a â€Å"pearl† in the string, enhancing the overall power of the parent nation S.E. Smith The â€Å"String of Pearls Strategy† is an excellent way to enfold a greater area of territory, thereby gaining more influence on the global stage, but it often evokes comment from other nations, who may be concerned that the string of pearls strategy is the first step in a serious takeover or military threat. Several things are included in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. The first is increased access to airfields and ports. This may be accomplished by building new facilities or through establishing cordial relations with other nations to ensure access to their ports. In some cases, the strategy involves heavily subsidising construction of new ports and airfield facilities in other countries, with the understanding that these facilities will be made readily available as needed. Developing better diplomatic relations is also a crucial step in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. Partly, this is undertaken to ensure that shipping lanes and airspace remain free and clear for that particular nation. It may also be used to soothe concerns about a rapidly expanding string of pearls, and to establish solid trade and export agreements which may ultimately benefit both nations. Since a string of pearls strategy may rely on linking a series of pearls, it is important to ensure that each pearl is also safe, and that it will not be threatened by neighbouring nations. Modernising military forces is the third component. A modern military can more effectively maintain and hold individual pearls, and it will also be prepared for various actions and exercises on the part of the parent nation. The modernised military also supports a countrys rise as a global power, and as a nation which commands respect. For nations which are slowly encircled in a string of said pearls, a string of pearls strategy can be upsetting. A country may also slowly take over shipping lanes, which is an issue of concern to nations which are not closely allied with it.[23] Chinas String of Pearl Strategy Chinas String of Pearl Strategy is driven by Chinas need to secure foreign oil and trade routes critical to its development. This has meant establishing an increased level of influence along sea routes through investment, port development and diplomacy. Chinas investments presently extend from Hainan Island in the South China Sea, through the littorals of the Straits of Malacca, including port developments in Chittagong in Bangladesh, Sittwe, Coco, Hianggyi, Khaukphyu, Mergui and Zadetkyi Kyun in Myanmar; Laem Chabang in Thailand; and Sihanoukville in Cambodia. They extend across the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Pakistans Gwadar Port, and in islands within the Arabian Sea and into the Persian Gulf. Chinas Interests in the Indian Ocean Region Its String of Pearls[24] Thus, part of these developments includes the upgrading of airstrips, many supported with military facilities, such as the facility on Woody Island, close to Vietnam. These developments may be directed at shifting the balance of power within the Indian and Arabian Gulf, away from the traditional Indian government management to China. However, it needs to be backed up with regional diplomatic ties, which China must look at to dispense with the need to engage with India. The strategy has been developed partially in response to a lack of progress on the Kra Canal project in Thailand, which would directly link the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. Isthumus of Kra Its Strategic Location for Chinas Shipping Lanes[25] The â€Å"string of pearls† strategy however provides a forward presence for China along the sea lines of communication that now anchor China directly to the Middle East. The question is, whether this strategy is intended purely to ensure secure supply lines and trade routes, or whether China will later use these in a bid to enforce regional supremacy. As long as Chinese interests remain benign, the â€Å"string of pearls† strategy remains the strongest pointer that China is strengthening its energy supply lines with the Middle East and embarking on a level of Southeast Asian trade. This would definitely result in the development of regional prosperity, that will come with Chinas these actions. If the strategy continues without the development of regional conflicts, the ASEAN trading bloc, with China at its heart, and the massive emerging markets of India and the other Southeast Asian nations close by, will develop and begin to rival that of the EU and the United States, and lessen Chinas dependence on these traditional export markets[26]. Why China Chose Pakistan as a Pearl The Peoples Republic of China is believed to be an ideological state wedded to the Communist ideology based on Marxism Leninism[27]. Chinas relations with other countries can be explained on the basis of two conceptual frameworks based on â€Å"Alliance Model† and on â€Å"United Front Model†[28]. However, with Pakistan, Chinas relations appear to be on the â€Å"Alliance Model†. This model sees Chinas foreign policy as â€Å"concerned with short problems, externally determined and reactive. It sees Chinas concern for security as the dominant theme of Chinas foreign policy†[29]. There is an immense desire in China to achieve the status of a Super Power. The first step towards that direction is to achieve a dominant position in Asia. The Indian sub-continent is one of the important areas in this region. In order to be a dominant power, China needs to have an effective dominance in the sub-continent. To this effect, India poses a challenge to China in the region. China is therefore keen to weaken India and who better than Pakistan can be utilised for this purpose by China[30]. USSR, which used to be a friend, guide and protector for China during the initial years of their formation in 1950, began to be considered as a rival and an unreliable ally by the end of the 1950s. Subsequent closeness of USSR with India and her attempts to befriend Pakistan in the 1960s, especially after the 1965 Indo Pak war, led to increased differences between the two countries. China was interested in preventing the Soviet Union from spreading its influence in Pakistan. Knowing that USSR could not befriend Pakistan at the cost of India, China decided to make friends with Pakistan with the aim of preventing the USSR from spreading its influence in South Asia using a powerful India[31]. Chinas strategic objectives in Pakistan stem from the fact that Xinjiang and Tibet are contiguous to the Indian sub-continent and China is still consolidating itself in these regions. Pakistan occupies certain areas of Kashmir which have immense strategic value in view of this. Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK) is located in a region where China, India and Afghanistan meet together. The religious affinity between the people of Xinjiang and Pakistan along with the history of repeated revolts by the Xinjiang people against the Chinese government forced China to sign a boundary agreement with Pakistan in 1963 to acquire strategically important areas to keep the influence of the Pakistani fundamentalism away from the people of Xinjiang[32]. Proximity of Chinas Xinjiang Province Tibet Autonomous Region to POK[33] Pakistans geography was helpful in supporting Chinese positions in the North-East in the Chumby Valley (prior to formation of Bangladesh) and in the Ladakh region in the rear of Indian positions. Thus Pakistan d and still s decisively in the defence of Chinas southern flank resulting in close ties between the two countries. The proximity of the Indian sub-continent to Xinjiang and Tibet, Pakistans location in the sub continent and the affinity existing between the Muslims of Xinjiang and Pakistan are matters of great importance for China in its geo political calculations[34]. It could also be Chinas objective to keep things simmering in South Asia by exploiting the Indo Pakistan disputes so that they may weaken each other by confrontation, leaving adequate space for China to be effective in the region. All the above reasons have led to an increased proximity of the Chinese policies towards Pakistan. Conclusion Chinas bond with Pakistan allowed the former a greater sphere of influence in to South Asia, as well provided a bridge between the Muslim world and Beijing. Though, traditionally, the driving factor for China was a hedge against India and getting strategic leverage against India, relations with China gave Pakistan access to civilian and military resources also. To this day, the relationship between the two countries is of high strategic importance, the military relationship with China being the corner stone of Pakistans foreign policy. And in return, Pakistan is helpful in realising Chinas dream of establishing her influence over the globe. CHAPTER V GROWING ECONOMIC TIES BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA. To attract good fortune, spend a new penny on an old friend. an old Chinese proverb Though political relations hold the maximum importance between countries, the economic relations are also noteworthy and infact, in recent times, have become one of the most significant factors in determining a nations foreign relations policy. Broadly, the economic relations can be divided into two forms trade and aid. Historical Perspective of Economic Ties During the Han Dynasty, trade existed between Ancient China and Ancient India on camels and yaks along the silk route for almost 3,000 years[35]. Infact, the silk route connecting China and Pakistan was closed down in 1949 and was re-opened in 1967 between the two countries. After partition, trade with India came to a standstill for Pakistan. Hence, Pakistans search for a trading partner to sell jute and cotton in return of coal, iron, cement etc prompted Pakistan to establish economic relations with China[36]. Silk Route[37] Economic and cultural interaction between Pakistan and China began in the 1950s. In April 1955, the late Premier Zhou Enlai held talks with the then Pakistan Prime Minister, M. Ali, during the Bandung Conference, and both sides agreed to strengthen bilateral ties. In January 1963, China and Pakistan signed their fist trade agreement[38]. This was followed up with the â€Å"Cultural Agreement† between the two countries in 1965[39]. The bonding established between the two states has continued ever since, with both countries looking at closer ties with each other for respective benefits. The relations between Pakistan and China were restricted to trade relations till 1964, however, it was in 1965, for the first time, that Pakistan started receiving Chinese aid[40]. In 1978, the Karakoram Highway was officially opened to trade between both countries. In 1986, China and Pakistan reached a comprehensive nuclear cooperation agreement which resulted in a 300-megawatt nuclear power pla nt built with Chinese help in Punjab province, which was completed in 1999[41]. Chinas Recent Economic Involvement in Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf took over power of Pakistan in October 1999 and since then the economic aspect became a major factor in Pakistan-China relations. During his visit to China in January 2000, he laid a great deal of emphasis on economic cooperation and hence the economic relations between the two countries slowly began to improve, both in trade and investments. The Chinese side too reciprocated positively by enhancing economic activity between the two countries[42]. The Chinese Premier at that time, Zhu Rongji, while visiting Pakistan in May 2001, urged the two sides to â€Å"boost cooperation in agriculture, infrastructure, information technology and other fields under the principle of reciprocity and mutual benefit for achieving common prosperity†[43].During this visit, Pakistan and China signed six Agreements and one MoU (Memorandum of Understanding). The Chinese financial assistance to Pakistan at that time was roughly over one billion dollars. The six agreements included Economic and Technical Cooperation, Tourism Cooperation, Lease Agreement on Saindak Copper-Gold Project, Supply of Locomotives to Pakistan Railways, Supply of Passenger Coaches to Pakistan Railways, White Oil Pipeline and MoU between Chinas ZTE and Pakistan Telecommunications Co. Ltd. Besides, the most important aspect of increasing economic cooperation was that the Chinese Premier reiterated his support for the Gwadar deep sea port and the Mekran coastal highway pro jects[44]. Mekran Coastal Highway[45] During his visit to China in November 2003, President Musharrafs signed a â€Å"Joint Declaration on Direction of Bilateral Relations.† It was a road-map to determine the direction and scope of overall Pakistan-China bilateral relations in the future. It laid additional emphasis on increasing the economic cooperation between the two countries and institutionalising mechanisms for consolidating an all-round relationship[46]. In December 2004, the two countries signed seven agreements in the sectors of trade, communication and energy. They also formulated a framework for enhanced cooperation between them. These agreements revolved around enhancing the bilateral trade, further progress on preferential trade agreement, setting up of joint agro-based industries and increasing of Chinese investments in Pakistan[47]. In April 2005, as many as 21 agreements and MoUs were signed between the two countries. These included cooperation in economy, defence, energy, infrastructure, social sector, health, education, higher education, housing and various other areas. The two countries also signed a â€Å"Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighbourly Relations†[48]. In January 2006, the Early Harvest Programme was launched to encourage bilateral trade, under which China extended zero-rated tariffs on 767 items while Pakistan reciprocated by extending the facility on 464 items[49]. In November 2006, China and Pakistan signed a FTA (free trade agreement). As per the agreement, China and Pakistan would reduce the tariffs on all goods in two phases. The aim of the agreement is to eliminate tariffs on no less than 90 percent of products, both in terms of tariff lines and trade volume, within a reasonably short period of time and on the basis of taking care of the concerns of both sides[50]. The Early Harvest Programme, which had commenced in January 2006, was merged into the FTA[51]. Also, China vowed to help Pakistan in civil nuclear technology by building and helping in the Khusab Nuclear Programme providing technology to Pakistan for better maintenance of civil nuclear plants[52]. In 2009, Pakistan and China signed a number of agreements and MoUs. These included construction of Bunji Dam in the Northern Areas with a capacity of 7,000 Megawatts[53], provision of soft loans for space, space technology and alternate energy including an amount of U.S. $ 190 million to supply Pakistani satellite PAKSAT-1R, which will replace the present satellite PAKSAT-1 that has a useful life until 2011. This loan will cover 85 percent of project Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINA AND PAKISTAN AND ITS IMPACT ON INDO PAK RELATIONS If your environment is changing, you must change with it. If you dont, you perish. Curtis E. Sahakian CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. China is a modern developing country with good economic and political condition. It is the biggest ancient society with flair towards modern culture and values. China has very good relations with its neighbours like Pakistan. Pakistan was one of the first countries of the world to recognise China, and since then they have very good relations with each other. 2. Pakistan and China entered into a trade agreement in January 1963 which granted reciprocal Most Favoured Nation status in matters of commerce, trade and shipping. Trade between the border regions of China and Pakistan started in 1969 after the first protocol of trade was signed. This border trade has continued to grow with the patronage of both the countries. Further trade protocols have been signed over the years. The construction of the Karakoram Highway has helped to further trade and communication. Pakistan is an important country for China in trade. A lot of projects of economic development in Pakistan are in process with the co-operation of China which are creating lot ofjobs opportunityfor both Pakistan and China. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4. This dissertation proposes to study and analyse the growing economic relations between Pakistan China, its impact on the security of India and to recommend measures to negate the same by India. HYPOTHESIS 5. Is the growing economic relations between Pakistan China having an adverse impact on the security of India? If yes, what actions should India take to negate them? JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY SCOPE 7. This study concentrates on analysing only the Economic relationship between Pakistan and China and the impact of the same on Indo Pak relations with special emphasis on Indias security. 8. The study is not looking into the military, diplomatic and nuclear relationship between the two countries and the impact these relations are having on Indias security and Indo Pak relations. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION 11. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter II. Strategic Relationship and it scope. (b) Chapter III. Historical Perspective of strategic relations between Pakistan and China. (c) Chapter IV. Chinas â€Å"String of Pearls Policy† Pakistans place in it. (d) Chapter V. Growing economic ties between Pakistan and China. (e) Chapter VI. Security Issues for India. (f) Chapter VII. Recommendations to negate this strategic relationship by India. CHAPTER II STRATEGIC RELATIONSHIP AND ITS SCOPE Interest does not tie nations together; it sometimes separates them. But sympathy and understanding does unite them. -Woodrow T. Wilson No nation is an island. Because domestic policies are constantly affected by developments outside, nations are compelled to enter into dialogue with other nations or initiating entities or form alliance(s) for the purpose of enhancing their status internationally, or increasing their power or prestige and survival in the international system[1]. History The concept of strategic relations is quite old. Humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other for thousands of years. However, it is generally agreed to that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century, when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures. Organisations like the Dutch East India Company were among the first multinational corporations[2], while representatives of various European governments met with foreign governments to establish trade agreements and to discuss issues of mutual concern. The formal history of strategic relations is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, where the modern state system was developed. Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty. Westphalia encouraged the rise of the independent nation-state(s), the institutionalisation of diplomacy and armies[3]. This European system was then exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonisation and the standards of civilisation. The contemporary international system was eventually established through decolonisation after the Cold War. Definition There are many definitions of Strategic Relations written by numerous authors on the web world. Some relevant ones are as given below. Agreement between two or more entities to conduct specified activities or processes, to achieve specified objectives such as product development or distribution[4]. Strategic Relations refers to the collective interactions of the international community, which includes individual nations and states, inter-governmental organisations such as the United Nations, non-governmental organisations, multinational corporations, and so forth. The term is also used to refer to a branch of political science which focuses on the study of these interactions[5]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organisations and certain sub-national entities (e.g., bureaucracies and political parties). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy[6]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations among states and other political and economic units in the international system. Particular areas of study within the field of international relations include diplomacy and diplomatic history, international law, body of rules considered legally binding in the relations between national states, also known as the law of nations[7]. Strategic Relations is the interaction between and among states, and more broadly, the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field, gathering together the international aspects of politics, economics, history, law, and sociology, or as a meta-discipline, focusing on the systemic structures and patterns of interaction of the human species taken as a whole. Barry Buzan Strategic Relations is an area of knowledge based on political science, law, economy, sociology, philosophy, and other social sciences. Traditionally, it not only treats the relations between nation states, but also, International Organisations and non-state actors in the international arena, like non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations[8]. What do Strategic Relations Mean Strategic Relationship represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), international non-governmental organisations (INGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and seeks to analyse as well as formulate the foreign policy of a particular state[9]. Apart from political science, Strategic Relations draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, international law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues including globalisation, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, terrorism, organised crime, human security, foreign interventionism and human rights. There are two main approaches to the field of International Relations. The first is the Realist or Pragmatist approach. This claims that conflict is inevitable and the best way to approach international relations is to be prepared to engage in conflicts and win. The second approach is the Structuralist approach and is symbolised by diplomacy, according to which conflict is not inevitable, focusing on the causes of conflict, stressing on the costs of conflict vis a vis possible gains. This school of thought has been heavily influenced by Galtungs theory of structural violence[10]. Broadly speaking, the two approaches to International Relations can be attributed to either side of the Atlantic: Realism is seen as a primarily American worldview while Structuralism is seen as typically European. Conclusion Considering the vast spectrum of the subject, Strategic Relations can become incredibly complex. The subject is also sometimes known as â€Å"foreign relations†. Specialists in this field staff diplomatic agencies abroad, provide consultation to businesses which are considering to establish branches overseas, and assist charitable non-governmental organisations with their missions. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA The opinions we hold of one another, our relations with friends and kinfolk are in no sense permanent, save in appearance, but are as eternally fluid as the sea itself. Marcel Proust Why Pakistan Chose to Align with China Pakistans attitude towards China is determined by its geography, economic constraints, domestic compulsions and the regional and international situation. The erstwhile fragmented shape of Pakistan, i.e. East and West Pakistan, had greatly contributed to the establishment of Pakistans close relations with China. Geographic constraints on account of Pakistans location, topography and the nature of its frontiers, gave rise to security problems for Pakistan. With the construction of highways connecting China and Pakistan, through Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, China acquired an easy approach to Pakistan. This turned out as a mixed blessing for Pakistan. So long as relations with China are friendly, there is no threat from the North. But in case of strained Sino Pak relations, there would be a grave threat from China[11]. Pakistani policy makers were conscious of this constraint and did express their fears in an unambiguous manner. President Ayub Khan wrote in his political autobiography:- West Pakistan is wedged in between three enormous powers with the Soviet Union at the top, the Peoples Republic of China in the North East, and India in the South and East. I know of no other small country which has the somewhat dubious distinction of having three such mighty neighbours[12]. A number of considerations prompted Pakistan to strengthen its economic and trade ties with China. Firstly, like China, Pakistan was a developing country and the two countries faced common problems in the field of agriculture and industrialisation. China had successfully solved the problem of water logging, salinity and floods, which Pakistan could benefit from. Secondly, the aid offered by China was very attractive as it carried rock-bottom low rate of interest or no interest at all. Thirdly, China showed interest in setting up heavy industries in Pakistan Taxila Industrial Complex, assisted by China is an example. Fourthly, trade with China was beneficial to Pakistan as the balance of the trade generally went in favour of Pakistan and rarely in favour of China[13]. Fifthly, 1962 Sino India war turned Pakistan towards China to counter India. Sixthly, US support to India increased after the Sino India war to counter China, this was resented by Pakistan, which China exploited to w ean the influence of US from Pakistan and get a foothold in the Indian subcontinent. And finally, the Kashmir issue. Pakistan adjudged its relations with other countries in terms of their attitude towards the Kashmir issue. Pakistan regarded China as a friend since its hostility towards India in 1962 and its involvement in the Kashmir issue thereafter[14]. The location of Tibet and Xinjiang on the north of the Indian subcontinent places China in a position to intervene militarily in a confrontation between India and Pakistan. The Karakoram Highway can be used by China for sending arms and ammunition and even the forces. In 1971, Indo Pakistan war, it was used for this purpose[15]. With a view to combating India, Pakistan has been seeking a political counterweight against it. Finding that China was interested in undermining Indias political influence in the Afro Asian world, Pakistani leaders thought that China could serve as a counterweight against India. It was, therefore, a Pakistani objective to seek Chinas political support against India[16]. Karakoram Highway[17] History of Sino Pak Relations After Pakistans creation in 1947, Pakistans relations with China were in a dormant state. In 1950, Pakistan officially recognised the Peoples Republic of China, and broke off ties with Taiwan. Bilateral relations were further strengthened at the Bandung Conference in 1955[18], when talks between the two heads of state played an important role in promoting, understanding and paving way for friendly relations and mutual assistance between the two countries. In 1961, Pakistan furthered its relations with China when it voted in favour of Chinas restoration rights in the UN. Sino-Pak relations got a shot in the arm, with deteriorating Sino-Indian relations which resulted in a war in 1962. China and Pakistan consequently met and agreed on the border between them, in 1963[19], and the Karakoram Highway was consequently built, connecting Chinas Sinkiang (Xinjiang-Uygur) Autonomous Region with the Northern Areas of Pakistan. In 1963 itself, a historic trade agreement between China and Pakistan was signed. Following this, diplomatic meetings were fairly frequent. Their strategic cooperation started out due to a mutual need to counter the Soviet Union and India, but later gave birth to Economic cooperation as well. China supported Pakistan in the two wars against India, in 1965 and 1971, with military as well as economic help. These foundations further led to the creation of a Joint Committee for Economy, Trade and Technology in 1982. By the late 1980s, China started discussing possible sales of military equipment and related technology to Pakistan. In the year 1996, Jiang Zemin, the then Chinese President, made a state visit to Pakistan. During the visit, the decision to establish comprehensive friendship and cooperation between the two nations was taken. Relations, since then have continued to move smoothly along the same path. In 2005, China and Pakistan signed a landmark ‘Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation, whereby they committed that â€Å"Neither party will join any alliance or bloc which infringes upon the sovereignty, security and territorial integrity† of either nation. Also reiterated was the agreement that both parties â€Å"would not conclude treaties of this nature with any third party†[20]. Conclusion Hence, during the post Cold War era, China turned out to be Pakistans most significant strategic guarantor as far as India was concerned. It was also the source of initial design information for Pakistans nuclear arsenal and also assisted with building of the nuclear technology complex[21]. Since the late 1990s, economic concerns have gained prominence alongside the military-strategic aspect of the relationship; specifically, trade and energy have taken precedence. Over the years, frequent exchanges of high-level visits and contacts between the two countries have resulted in a number of bilateral trade agreements and investment commitments. A comprehensive free trade agreement was signed in 2008, giving each country unprecedented market access to the other. Trade between Islamabad and Beijing now hovers around $7 billion a year and both sides are set on raising the to $15 billion by 2010[22]. CHAPTER IV CHINAS â€Å"STRING OF PEARLS STRATEGY† PAKISTANS PLACE IN IT. Apart from their other characteristics, the outstanding thing about Chinas 600 million people is that they are â€Å"poor and blank.† This may seem a bad thing, but in reality it is a good thing. Poverty gives rise to the desire for change, the desire for action and the desire for revolution. On a blank sheet of paper free from any mark, the freshest and most beautiful pictures can be painted. Zedong Mao What is String of Pearls Strategy A string of pearls strategy is a strategic move which involves establishing a series of nodes of military and economic power throughout a region. Each node is a â€Å"pearl† in the string, enhancing the overall power of the parent nation S.E. Smith The â€Å"String of Pearls Strategy† is an excellent way to enfold a greater area of territory, thereby gaining more influence on the global stage, but it often evokes comment from other nations, who may be concerned that the string of pearls strategy is the first step in a serious takeover or military threat. Several things are included in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. The first is increased access to airfields and ports. This may be accomplished by building new facilities or through establishing cordial relations with other nations to ensure access to their ports. In some cases, the strategy involves heavily subsidising construction of new ports and airfield facilities in other countries, with the understanding that these facilities will be made readily available as needed. Developing better diplomatic relations is also a crucial step in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. Partly, this is undertaken to ensure that shipping lanes and airspace remain free and clear for that particular nation. It may also be used to soothe concerns about a rapidly expanding string of pearls, and to establish solid trade and export agreements which may ultimately benefit both nations. Since a string of pearls strategy may rely on linking a series of pearls, it is important to ensure that each pearl is also safe, and that it will not be threatened by neighbouring nations. Modernising military forces is the third component. A modern military can more effectively maintain and hold individual pearls, and it will also be prepared for various actions and exercises on the part of the parent nation. The modernised military also supports a countrys rise as a global power, and as a nation which commands respect. For nations which are slowly encircled in a string of said pearls, a string of pearls strategy can be upsetting. A country may also slowly take over shipping lanes, which is an issue of concern to nations which are not closely allied with it.[23] Chinas String of Pearl Strategy Chinas String of Pearl Strategy is driven by Chinas need to secure foreign oil and trade routes critical to its development. This has meant establishing an increased level of influence along sea routes through investment, port development and diplomacy. Chinas investments presently extend from Hainan Island in the South China Sea, through the littorals of the Straits of Malacca, including port developments in Chittagong in Bangladesh, Sittwe, Coco, Hianggyi, Khaukphyu, Mergui and Zadetkyi Kyun in Myanmar; Laem Chabang in Thailand; and Sihanoukville in Cambodia. They extend across the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Pakistans Gwadar Port, and in islands within the Arabian Sea and into the Persian Gulf. Chinas Interests in the Indian Ocean Region Its String of Pearls[24] Thus, part of these developments includes the upgrading of airstrips, many supported with military facilities, such as the facility on Woody Island, close to Vietnam. These developments may be directed at shifting the balance of power within the Indian and Arabian Gulf, away from the traditional Indian government management to China. However, it needs to be backed up with regional diplomatic ties, which China must look at to dispense with the need to engage with India. The strategy has been developed partially in response to a lack of progress on the Kra Canal project in Thailand, which would directly link the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. Isthumus of Kra Its Strategic Location for Chinas Shipping Lanes[25] The â€Å"string of pearls† strategy however provides a forward presence for China along the sea lines of communication that now anchor China directly to the Middle East. The question is, whether this strategy is intended purely to ensure secure supply lines and trade routes, or whether China will later use these in a bid to enforce regional supremacy. As long as Chinese interests remain benign, the â€Å"string of pearls† strategy remains the strongest pointer that China is strengthening its energy supply lines with the Middle East and embarking on a level of Southeast Asian trade. This would definitely result in the development of regional prosperity, that will come with Chinas these actions. If the strategy continues without the development of regional conflicts, the ASEAN trading bloc, with China at its heart, and the massive emerging markets of India and the other Southeast Asian nations close by, will develop and begin to rival that of the EU and the United States, and lessen Chinas dependence on these traditional export markets[26]. Why China Chose Pakistan as a Pearl The Peoples Republic of China is believed to be an ideological state wedded to the Communist ideology based on Marxism Leninism[27]. Chinas relations with other countries can be explained on the basis of two conceptual frameworks based on â€Å"Alliance Model† and on â€Å"United Front Model†[28]. However, with Pakistan, Chinas relations appear to be on the â€Å"Alliance Model†. This model sees Chinas foreign policy as â€Å"concerned with short problems, externally determined and reactive. It sees Chinas concern for security as the dominant theme of Chinas foreign policy†[29]. There is an immense desire in China to achieve the status of a Super Power. The first step towards that direction is to achieve a dominant position in Asia. The Indian sub-continent is one of the important areas in this region. In order to be a dominant power, China needs to have an effective dominance in the sub-continent. To this effect, India poses a challenge to China in the region. China is therefore keen to weaken India and who better than Pakistan can be utilised for this purpose by China[30]. USSR, which used to be a friend, guide and protector for China during the initial years of their formation in 1950, began to be considered as a rival and an unreliable ally by the end of the 1950s. Subsequent closeness of USSR with India and her attempts to befriend Pakistan in the 1960s, especially after the 1965 Indo Pak war, led to increased differences between the two countries. China was interested in preventing the Soviet Union from spreading its influence in Pakistan. Knowing that USSR could not befriend Pakistan at the cost of India, China decided to make friends with Pakistan with the aim of preventing the USSR from spreading its influence in South Asia using a powerful India[31]. Chinas strategic objectives in Pakistan stem from the fact that Xinjiang and Tibet are contiguous to the Indian sub-continent and China is still consolidating itself in these regions. Pakistan occupies certain areas of Kashmir which have immense strategic value in view of this. Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK) is located in a region where China, India and Afghanistan meet together. The religious affinity between the people of Xinjiang and Pakistan along with the history of repeated revolts by the Xinjiang people against the Chinese government forced China to sign a boundary agreement with Pakistan in 1963 to acquire strategically important areas to keep the influence of the Pakistani fundamentalism away from the people of Xinjiang[32]. Proximity of Chinas Xinjiang Province Tibet Autonomous Region to POK[33] Pakistans geography was helpful in supporting Chinese positions in the North-East in the Chumby Valley (prior to formation of Bangladesh) and in the Ladakh region in the rear of Indian positions. Thus Pakistan d and still s decisively in the defence of Chinas southern flank resulting in close ties between the two countries. The proximity of the Indian sub-continent to Xinjiang and Tibet, Pakistans location in the sub continent and the affinity existing between the Muslims of Xinjiang and Pakistan are matters of great importance for China in its geo political calculations[34]. It could also be Chinas objective to keep things simmering in South Asia by exploiting the Indo Pakistan disputes so that they may weaken each other by confrontation, leaving adequate space for China to be effective in the region. All the above reasons have led to an increased proximity of the Chinese policies towards Pakistan. Conclusion Chinas bond with Pakistan allowed the former a greater sphere of influence in to South Asia, as well provided a bridge between the Muslim world and Beijing. Though, traditionally, the driving factor for China was a hedge against India and getting strategic leverage against India, relations with China gave Pakistan access to civilian and military resources also. To this day, the relationship between the two countries is of high strategic importance, the military relationship with China being the corner stone of Pakistans foreign policy. And in return, Pakistan is helpful in realising Chinas dream of establishing her influence over the globe. CHAPTER V GROWING ECONOMIC TIES BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA. To attract good fortune, spend a new penny on an old friend. an old Chinese proverb Though political relations hold the maximum importance between countries, the economic relations are also noteworthy and infact, in recent times, have become one of the most significant factors in determining a nations foreign relations policy. Broadly, the economic relations can be divided into two forms trade and aid. Historical Perspective of Economic Ties During the Han Dynasty, trade existed between Ancient China and Ancient India on camels and yaks along the silk route for almost 3,000 years[35]. Infact, the silk route connecting China and Pakistan was closed down in 1949 and was re-opened in 1967 between the two countries. After partition, trade with India came to a standstill for Pakistan. Hence, Pakistans search for a trading partner to sell jute and cotton in return of coal, iron, cement etc prompted Pakistan to establish economic relations with China[36]. Silk Route[37] Economic and cultural interaction between Pakistan and China began in the 1950s. In April 1955, the late Premier Zhou Enlai held talks with the then Pakistan Prime Minister, M. Ali, during the Bandung Conference, and both sides agreed to strengthen bilateral ties. In January 1963, China and Pakistan signed their fist trade agreement[38]. This was followed up with the â€Å"Cultural Agreement† between the two countries in 1965[39]. The bonding established between the two states has continued ever since, with both countries looking at closer ties with each other for respective benefits. The relations between Pakistan and China were restricted to trade relations till 1964, however, it was in 1965, for the first time, that Pakistan started receiving Chinese aid[40]. In 1978, the Karakoram Highway was officially opened to trade between both countries. In 1986, China and Pakistan reached a comprehensive nuclear cooperation agreement which resulted in a 300-megawatt nuclear power pla nt built with Chinese help in Punjab province, which was completed in 1999[41]. Chinas Recent Economic Involvement in Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf took over power of Pakistan in October 1999 and since then the economic aspect became a major factor in Pakistan-China relations. During his visit to China in January 2000, he laid a great deal of emphasis on economic cooperation and hence the economic relations between the two countries slowly began to improve, both in trade and investments. The Chinese side too reciprocated positively by enhancing economic activity between the two countries[42]. The Chinese Premier at that time, Zhu Rongji, while visiting Pakistan in May 2001, urged the two sides to â€Å"boost cooperation in agriculture, infrastructure, information technology and other fields under the principle of reciprocity and mutual benefit for achieving common prosperity†[43].During this visit, Pakistan and China signed six Agreements and one MoU (Memorandum of Understanding). The Chinese financial assistance to Pakistan at that time was roughly over one billion dollars. The six agreements included Economic and Technical Cooperation, Tourism Cooperation, Lease Agreement on Saindak Copper-Gold Project, Supply of Locomotives to Pakistan Railways, Supply of Passenger Coaches to Pakistan Railways, White Oil Pipeline and MoU between Chinas ZTE and Pakistan Telecommunications Co. Ltd. Besides, the most important aspect of increasing economic cooperation was that the Chinese Premier reiterated his support for the Gwadar deep sea port and the Mekran coastal highway pro jects[44]. Mekran Coastal Highway[45] During his visit to China in November 2003, President Musharrafs signed a â€Å"Joint Declaration on Direction of Bilateral Relations.† It was a road-map to determine the direction and scope of overall Pakistan-China bilateral relations in the future. It laid additional emphasis on increasing the economic cooperation between the two countries and institutionalising mechanisms for consolidating an all-round relationship[46]. In December 2004, the two countries signed seven agreements in the sectors of trade, communication and energy. They also formulated a framework for enhanced cooperation between them. These agreements revolved around enhancing the bilateral trade, further progress on preferential trade agreement, setting up of joint agro-based industries and increasing of Chinese investments in Pakistan[47]. In April 2005, as many as 21 agreements and MoUs were signed between the two countries. These included cooperation in economy, defence, energy, infrastructure, social sector, health, education, higher education, housing and various other areas. The two countries also signed a â€Å"Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighbourly Relations†[48]. In January 2006, the Early Harvest Programme was launched to encourage bilateral trade, under which China extended zero-rated tariffs on 767 items while Pakistan reciprocated by extending the facility on 464 items[49]. In November 2006, China and Pakistan signed a FTA (free trade agreement). As per the agreement, China and Pakistan would reduce the tariffs on all goods in two phases. The aim of the agreement is to eliminate tariffs on no less than 90 percent of products, both in terms of tariff lines and trade volume, within a reasonably short period of time and on the basis of taking care of the concerns of both sides[50]. The Early Harvest Programme, which had commenced in January 2006, was merged into the FTA[51]. Also, China vowed to help Pakistan in civil nuclear technology by building and helping in the Khusab Nuclear Programme providing technology to Pakistan for better maintenance of civil nuclear plants[52]. In 2009, Pakistan and China signed a number of agreements and MoUs. These included construction of Bunji Dam in the Northern Areas with a capacity of 7,000 Megawatts[53], provision of soft loans for space, space technology and alternate energy including an amount of U.S. $ 190 million to supply Pakistani satellite PAKSAT-1R, which will replace the present satellite PAKSAT-1 that has a useful life until 2011. This loan will cover 85 percent of project

Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Women Essay -- Gender

A woman’s job is to cook, clean, and bear children. Although it may not remain true now, many thought this for most of history. A woman had her duty to her husband and that served as almost all of her worth. During the Enlightenment, some women began to question this norm and to voice their unhappiness. The Enlightenment period was an intellectual movement that sought to reform society and advance knowledge (â€Å"Age of Enlightenment†). Even with all of the Enlightenment’s great advancements, women still did not possess many rights. Women continued to be â€Å"oppressed and kept to the private sphere,† separated from men (â€Å"Women in the Enlightenment†). Few women challenged these social norms, but a few existed such as Mary Wollstonecraft. Wollstonecraft changed European thought on women through the writing of her essay â€Å"A Vindication of the Rights of Women.† Her essay proposed controversial ideas on a womanâ€⠄¢s position as a wife, right to education, and rights in society. During the Enlightenment, a pamphlet war began called the Revolution Controversy. Edmund Burke started the Revolution Controversy when he published an essay that sparked debate over the French Revolution. After the publication, many authors such as Wollstonecraft responded and disagreed with Burke’s views. Wollstonecraft’s response was titled â€Å"A Vindication of the Rights of Men† (â€Å"Revolution Controversy†). Two years later, she also responded to Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Pà ©rigord’s report to the National Assembly of France. His report stated that women â€Å"should only receive a domestic education† (â€Å"A Vindication†). Wollstonecraft became infuriated at this claim and quickly began to write her essay â€Å"The Vindication of the Rights of Women.† She set out... ...pedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 11 Oct. 2011. Web. 20 Oct. 2011. . "Timeline of Women's Rights (other than Voting)." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 7 Oct. 2011. Web. 17 Oct. 2011. wiki/Timeline_of_women's_rights_(other_than_voting)>. Van Doren, Charles. A History of Knowledge: Past, Present, and Future. New York, NY: Ballantine, 1991. Print. Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Vindication of the Rights of Women. Boston: Peter Edes, 1792. Bartleby.com: Great Books Online. Bartleby Books, 1999. Web. 16 Oct. 2011. www.bartleby.com/144/>. "Women in the Enlightenment." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 17 Nov. 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011. Enlightenment>.

The Ancient Mayans Essay -- History Historical Essays

The Ancient Mayans "The Maya" in Across the Centuries gives a good overview of the Maya. However, the text fails to expand and several key issues such as the influence of the Olmecs, social structure, the relevance of sacrifices, Spain's influence on the history of the Maya, and how the Mayan civilization fell. By leaving out the aforementioned issues the Maya are given less recognition than they deserve. By glossing over the Maya the authors of Across the Centuries essentially teach children that the Maya ar not of crucial importance. Across the Centuries' inadequate "The Maya" not only teaches students to not care about other cultures, it denies them the knowledge of an ancient culture more than worthy of recognition. "The Maya" begins with a quote from John Lloyd Stephens, one of the first Europeans to come across the remnants of the Mayan civilization. The chapter then explains where the Maya lived and the conditions of their environment. The agricultural methods are then elaborated on, followed by a section devoted to priests and kings. Finally "the Maya" ends with Mayan achievements. The whole chapter consists of only six pages, a rather small amount of information for a culture of such importance. According to The Maya "whether or not one thinks of the Olmecs as the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, the fact is that many other civilizations, including the Maya, were ultimately dependent on the Olmec achievement"(Coe 50). It is believed that the Olmec, a civilization that inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula before the Maya, is responsible for many of the Mayan achievements in mathematics, architecture, and astrology. Unfortunately, Across the Centuries only mentions the Olmecs in "the Maya" when referring to the... ...tory pertaining to dominant versus minority cultural history, a sad fact especially in this day and age. Unequal proportioning is clearly scene in Across the Centuries' "The Maya", which is only six pages long. Hopefully one day our children will have textbooks with the latest objective information, until then teachers will continue to modify their lessons to prevent this unequal historical proportioning. Works Cited Armento, Beverly and Nash, Gary and Salter, Chistopher and Wixon, Karen. Across the Centuries. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991. Bently, Jerry and Ziegler, Herber. Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past.Boston: McGrawHill, 2000. Coe, Michael. The Maya. 6th edition. London: Thames and Hudson, 1999. Culbert, T. Patrick. The Lost Civilization: The Story of the Classic Maya. New York: Harper and Row, 1974.

Deductive and Inductive Methods of Research Essay

In the quest for logical, supportable and verifiable scientific answers there are two basic methods of reasoning used to approach the subject matter to be studied. These are known as the deductive and the inductive approaches. The two approaches provide quite different lines of attack when attempting to prove or disprove social theories. The information that is gathered is used by social work researchers as supporting evidence to establish connections between theories and empirical data. Rafael Engel and Russell Schutt, The Practice of Research in Social Work, explain â€Å"Theories help us understand how social problems emerge; they guide us in the design of interventions to help individuals, groups or communities†(Rafael. Schutt. 2005. p. 39). In the case of deductive reasoning studies the research is begun from a theoretical basis, focused on a topic, and then narrowed to an; ‘If-Then’ hypotheses that can be tested. Research is conducted to gather data through observations, to confirm or disprove the hypotheses. Inductive reasoning is in a sense a reverse study, as it is through observations made that have initially picked up on certain trends, or established regularities that the hypotheses or theory is developed. In the field of Social work research it is not at all uncommon to utilize both methods of research, and Engel and Schutt refer to this as the â€Å"Research Circle† (2005. p. 45). Research often involves variables, and hypotheses often must stand up to multiple studies to arrive at a conclusive answer. The authors cite the Sherman and Berk’s, 1984, study of domestic violence â€Å"as an example of how the research circle works†(2005. p. 43). They said that first based on data regarding spousal abuse a hypothesis was developed regarding arrest rates. After data was researched that corresponded with the theory, the study was then followed up with inductive research based on the statistics of the data gathered. As noted often the researchers will go around the circle a number of time, as Sherman and Berk’s study did, adjusting variables and methods, to test a multitude of hypotheses. According to Engel and Schutt the â€Å"Inductive research process is more often the strategy used in qualitative methods† (2005. p. 38), and that deductive is â€Å"Most often used in quantitative methods† (2005. p. 38).

Human Organ Donation Opinion Paper Essay

1. The progress and spread of transplant medicine and surgery nowadays makes possible treatment and cure for many illnesses which, up to a short time ago, could only lead to death or, at best, a painful and limited existence. This â€Å"service to life,†[1] which the donation and transplant of organs represents, shows its moral value and legitimizes its medical practice. There are, however, some conditions which must be observed, particularly those regarding donors and the organs donated and implanted. Every organ or human tissue transplant requires an explant which in some way impairs the corporeal integrity of the donor. 2. The present shortage of available organs for transplant has resulted in a number of propositions for improving the situation so as to preserve the life of those in danger of imminent death, and/or to improve the health of those who are suffering from various aliments. These propositions range from state-funding of more Organ Donation coordinators, to the establishment of a free market in organs. 3. Not all options, however, are morally acceptable. Moreover, every option must be subject to clear, coherent and rationally defensible ethical analysis. The approach used in this opinion is that of the authoritative moral teaching of the Magisterium of the Roman Catholic Church and the natural law tradition (specifically that articulated by the Magisterium). It does so on the basis that (a) all other approaches that purport to be based on reason alone are essentially deficient and ultimately incoherent; and (b) that the moral truth of natural law is, by definition, accessible to all. The Church thus rejects those approaches to morality, such as all forms of utilitarianism, that require people to engage in the epistemologically and intellectually impossible task of measuring and weighing all the certain and possible good and evil effects of an action.[2] To cite John Paul II, â€Å"How could an absolute obligation resulting from such debatable calculations be justified?†[3] Instead, the Catholic analysis of a policy’s moral dimension focuses upon asking whether an option is choice-worthy, or if it is excluded from upright choice by its opposition in some way to the human goods (bona humana) to which St. Thomas Aquinas says all people, religious or otherwise, are directed by the first principles of practical reasonableness,[4] the basic reasons for action which the encyclical letter Veritatis Splendor calls â€Å"fundamental human goods.†[5] 4. This opinion considers only one proposition: that is, â€Å"The Richard M. De Vos Position Paper on Financial Incentives for Organ Donation† (hereafter the Position Paper). This proposition involves the establishment of a tax incentive or an insurance benefit to be received by the designated beneficiary of a donor upon the successful transplant of the donor’s organs following the donor’s natural death. This policy encourages people to designate, unambiguously, if they wish to have their organs recovered after death with the object of an act being the saving of human life. 5. Should there be any change in the composition of the Position Paper, this opinion should be considered null and void until the author has had the opportunity to consider the ethical implications of the changes. 6. Should the Magisterium of the Roman Catholic Church pronounce authoritatively and specifically on the proposition articulated in the Position Paper or a similar proposition, then the author’s position should be henceforth assumed to adhere to that of the Church. The Catholic Position on Organ Transplantation and Compensation for Donation of Human Organs There are positive and negative dimensions to the teaching of the Catholic Church on organ transplantation and the question of compensation. Positive Dimensions 1. Transplantation between species, specifically from animal to human, in general, is not morally forbidden. â€Å"It cannot be said that every transplant of tissues (biologically possible) between two individuals of different species is morally reprehensible, but it is even less true that every heterogeneous transplant biologically possible is not forbidden and cannot raise objections. A distinction must be made between cases, depending on which tissue or organ is intended for transplant. The transplant of animal sexual glands to humans must be rejected as immoral; but the transplant of the cornea of a non-human organism to a human organism would not create any problem if it were biologically possible and advisable.†[6] 2. Transplantation from a corpse requires that the corpse be treated with the respect due to the abode of a spiritual and immortal soul, an essential constituent of a human person whose dignity it shared.[7] 3. Transplantation from a corpse to a living being is permissible. Physicians should not, however, be permitted to undertake excisions or other operations on a corpse without the permission of those charged with its care and perhaps even in the face of objections previously expressed by the person in question.[8] â€Å"Organ transplants are not morally acceptable if the donor or those who legitimately speak for him have not given their informed consent. Organ transplants conform with the moral law and can be meritorious if the physical and psychological dangers and risks incurred by the donor are proportionate to the good sought for the recipient. It is morally inadmissible directly to bring about the disabling mutilation or death of a human being, even in order to delay the death of other persons.†[9] 4. People may choose in their wills to dispose of their bodies after natural death for legitimate medical purposes.[10] 5. Organ transplantation from a live donor is also permissible. People are not, however, free to destroy or mutilate their members or in any other way render themselves unfit for their natural functions, except when no other provision can be made for the good of the whole body. This does not rule out live organ donation for transplantation, provided that the donor’s own health, identity, or adequate biological functioning is not endangered. â€Å"One can donate only what he can deprive himself of without serious danger to his life or personal identity, and for a just and proportionate reason.†[11] Vital organs may only be donated after death.[12] 6. Organ donation is neither a duty nor â€Å"an obligatory act of charity.†[13] But â€Å"a transplant, and even a simple blood transfusion, is not like other operations. It must not be separated from the donor’s act of self-giving, from the love that gives life. The physician should always be conscious of the particular nobility of this work; he becomes the mediator of something especially significant, the gift of self which one person has made—even after death—so that another might live.†[14] 7. Specifically regarding the issue of incentives for organ donation, compensation (financial or otherwise) is not in principle ruled out. â€Å"In advertising (for cornea donors) an intelligent reserve should be maintained to avoid serious interior and exterior conflicts. Also, is it necessary, as often happens, to refuse any compensation as a matter of principle? The question has arisen. Without doubt there can be grave abuses if recompense is demanded; but it would be an exaggeration to say that any acceptance or requirement of recompense is immoral. The case is analogous to that of blood transfusion; it is to the donor’s credit if he refuses recompense, but it is not necessarily a fault to accept it.†[15] Hence, while organ donation is commendable, acceptance of compensation may be permissible. Negative Dimensions 1. The following conditions would render compensation for donating human organs morally impermissible: (a) if the compensation were carried out in a manner that obfuscates, denies, or undermines the belief in the divine origin of human life or the dignity thereby due the corpse; (b) if the intention and object of seeking compensation for either oneself or others was an illegal, immoral, or irreligious end, or directly violated one or more of the fundamental human goods; or (c) the act of compensation amounted to merely instrumentalising the donor or the donor’s mere self-instrumentalization. 2. The transplantation of the sexual glands from animals to humans is to be rejected as immoral[16] because such a transplant would directly deny the sacred element in humanity and the goods of human love. 3. Society, specifically in the form of its political organization, the State, may not commandeer the organs of a deceased human being without the prior permission of that person or the consent of his family.[17] The relation of individual human persons to the body politic is moral, not organic. This rules out any form of coercive donation, including organ procurement strategies such as presumed consent in which, absent a specific refusal, one is presumed to have consented to donation. 4. It is forbidden for any form of organ donation, be it by a living donor or from a corpse, to involve any mere instrumentalization of the person from whom the organ is taken. This prohibition includes any mere self-instrumentalization by a living donor. John Paul II states, â€Å"The body cannot be treated as a merely physical or biological entity, nor can its organs ever be used as items of sale or exchange. Such a reductive materialist conception would lead to a merely instrumental use of the body and therefore of the person. In such a perspective, organ transplantation and the grating of tissue would no longer correspond to an act of donation but would amount to the dispossession or plundering of the body.†[18] Acceptance of compensation for oneself or others, as described above, however, need not proceed from a choice merely to instrumentalise oneself. 5. It is forbidden to engage in the commercial trafficking of bodies. â€Å"Also, in the case of dead fetuses, as for the corpses of adult persons, all commercial trafficking must be considered illicit and should be prohibited.†[19] 6. â€Å"Ethically, not all organs can be donated. The brain and the gonads may not be transplanted because they ensure the personal and procreative identity respectively. These are organs which embody the characteristic uniqueness of the person, which medicine is bound to protect.†[20]